Boko Haram Is The Elusive Master Mind Behind The Islamic...

The group, Boko Haram, was created 14 years ago by Mohammed Yusuf (1970-2009) to create and pure Islamic state in Nigeria. With the development in technology over the last ten years the internet has become a freeway of information. This has created the perfect opportunity for terrorist groups to blossom and spread their messages to lands far away from their previous reach. Mohammed Yusuf Ideals were focused on making Nigeria a â€Å"pure Islamic State†. In 2009 police found and killed him which with media access in the 21st century was filmed and posted online causing an uproar within the group causing escalated attacks and bombing in Nigeria causing the start of what is known as the rensurgence that started in 2011. The main targets for these†¦show more content†¦The fact the Nigeria’s poverty has always been an issue has not helped with stopping the terrorist organization. The National Bureau of Statistics has said that â€Å"60.9% of Nigerians in 2010 were living in absolute poverty- this figure had risen from 54.7% in 2004.† The worst of the poverty is in Northern Nigeria where the Boko Haram has taking large amounts of land over. In 2003, shortly after the first formation of the Boko Haram, Nigeria’s second-term president, Olusegun Obasanjo was declared winner of the election amid claims of fraud and intimidati on during the election which further divided the country. Since then there has been multiple presidents one of which goes by the name, Muhammadu Buhari, who in 2015 accused his security advisor of stealing nearly 2 billion that was suppose to go to the militaries effort to fight the Boko Haram. This weakness within the government over the past fourteen hasn’t helped decrease the Boko Harams death tolls or violence in Nigeria. In 2009, attacks escalated and the Boko Haram became its most powerful self, the group launched itself forward into terrorism with attack such as: â€Å"dozens of massacres of civilians and the abduction of more than 500 women and girls in its five-year insurgency in Nigeria. When a suicide bomber dressed as a student infiltrated a high school in northern Nigeria on Monday and detonated explosives in a backpack,

Main Characters In Cathedral By Raymond Carvers Cathedral

The title of the story is â€Å"Cathedral†, which was published in 1983. The author of the story is Raymond Carver who was an American, born in Oregon, that lived from 1938 until 1988. There are three main characters in the story. There is the husband, who was not named, that narrates the entire story. He seems to be very jealous of the blind man and uneasy about his visit to his home. There is the wife, who is also unnamed, that is very excited for the blind man to visit her home since she has not seen him in years. She is insistent that her husband be a good host and treat her guest with dignity and respect. Last, we have the blind man named Robert. He is an easygoing and caring man whose wife has just died. Robert seems to be able to care†¦show more content†¦Once complete with dinner they all moved into the living room for more conversation, more drinks, to smoke some marijuana, and watch some television. After a while, the wife falls asleep on the couch and leave s Robert and her husband awake to talk amongst themselves. The two of them end up watching a program on TV about the church and the middle ages where they are showing and discussing cathedrals. The blind man then asked the husband to describe to him what cathedrals looked like. The husband was having a hard time describing them to the blind man in an effective way, so the blind man suggested that they draw one together. The husband grabbed some heavy paper and a pencil and sat down to draw the cathedral. The blind man put his hand over the hand of the husband as he drew the cathedral on the paper so that he could feel what he was drawing. The blind man then had him close his eyes and continue to draw the cathedral. The story ends when the blind man tells the husband to open his eyes and tell him how the drawing ended up. The husband kept his eyes closed and said, â€Å"It’s really something.† The style and language of the story is very simple, clear, and very easy to u nderstand. Some would call it â€Å"minimalistic†, even though Raymond Carver does not care for this term at all. His writing is very lean with little excess. An example of this is when the exchange of the audio tapes is discussed. TheShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Raymond Carver s Cathedral852 Words   |  4 PagesIn Raymond Carver’s short story â€Å"Cathedral,† a blind man named Robert visits a man and his wife in their home for a short period. In the beginning, the husband is very rude to Robert due to his inability to see. However, by the end of Robert’s stay, the husband realizes that he is quite far from being a blind fool. By analyzing the theme, character, and conflict of the short story, the reader will be able to better understand what messages lay within Carver’s writing. First, by analyzing the themeRead MoreRaymond Carver’s â€Å"Cathedral† vs. Tess Gallagher’s â€Å"Rain Flooding Your Campfire†1575 Words   |  7 PagesRaymond Carver’s â€Å"Cathedral† and Tess Gallagher’s â€Å"Rain Flooding your Campfire† are good examples of intertextual dialogue between two writers. These two stories show us how two writers can grow and develop short stories differently from the same experience. There are similarities between the stories, such as the use of a first person narrator, the plot, setting, and also there is an interchange between the narrator and the blind man in both stories. But within these similarities there are alsoRead More Blind Faith in Raymond Carvers Cathedral Essay920 Words   |  4 PagesBlind Faith in Raymond Carvers Cathedral      Ã‚   In the story Cathedral by Raymond Carver, the main character, goes through a major personal transformation.   At the beginning of the story, his opinions of others are filled with stereotypes, discrimination and prejudice.   Through interaction with his wifes blind friend Robert, his attitude and outlook on life changes.   Although at first he seemed afraid to associate with a blind man, Roberts outgoing personality left him with virtually noRead MoreThe Two Sides Essay1379 Words   |  6 Pagesthe choice of seeking out more of said idea or choosing to remain as is. Cathedral by Raymond Carver is a story that gives us a look into what it is like to have our views challenged through experiencing them first hand. We are introduced to the story by narration and we are given a brief summary of how his wife and the blind man had met from the narrrator. We learn that the blind man is named Robert, he is the only character that is named and described in the story. After the exchange of greetingsRead MoreAlcohol and Marijuana in Catherdral by Raymond Carver Essay963 Words   |  4 Pagesefforts from imposed laws: people feel the need to consume these substances and encage in behaviors out of the ordinary. Drugs and alcohol are used in the story â€Å"Cathedral† but also they are used in Raymond Carver’s personal life. Carver began drinking heavily in 1967 and was repeatedly hospitalized for alcoholism in the 1970’s. Carver’s minimum wage jobs, the demand of parenting and the need to bring money home led to his addiction to alcohol. Alcohol became a problem because carver was saddledRead MoreAnalysis Of Raymond Carver s Cathedral1696 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction: Everyone has ghosts in their closets; something they are running from, or trying to bury alive. Cathedral, written by Raymond Carver, takes place in the early 1980’s. Originally published in The Atlantic Monthly in 1981. Carver slightly revised the story and re-released it in 1983. At a time when the blue collar working class lived paycheck to paycheck, working hard for newfound luxuries such as color television, this short story is humorous and eye-opening for the reader. For adultsRead MoreAn Analysis Of Cathedral By Raymond Carver1441 Words   |  6 Pages Cathedral Research Paper The short story â€Å"Cathedral†, by Raymond Carver, is a thought provoking piece that focuses on the transition a man goes through to see the world with his soul. The story gives hope that people can change if given the chance to be better people. Over the course of the story, Carver uses both diction and description to explore themes in religion and morality. â€Å"Cathedral† depicts a husband and a wife as they prepare and entertain a friend of the wife. The husband, the narratorRead More Disjunction versus Communion in Raymond Carvers Short Stories3821 Words   |  16 Pages Disjunction versus Communion in Raymond Carvers Short Stories Raymond Carver, poet, essayist, and short story writer, was very different from some other writers in that he clipped his writing until only the essential remained. Carver not only acknowledged the effect that fiction could have on readers, he proclaimed that it should affect readers.( Bonetti 58) Thus, when Carver writes about intimate relationships, the reader perceives the stories as more than entertainment or skillfulRead MoreComparing Two Dramatic Comedies: Raymond Carver’s Cathedral and Guy de Maupassant’s The Jewelry827 Words   |  4 PagesA reader looking for a story where there is drama, but still humor will be satisfied with Raymond Carver’s Cathedral and Guy de Maupassant’s The Jewelry. Both have some form of wit developed through a plot structure that appeals to the most common of people. Carver presents a man who is so narrow-minded that he is unable to grasp the idea of knowing a person who is blind. Maupassant creates a story of a man who is blind to the fact of the true actions of his wife and the lies she construed duringRead MoreRaymond Clevie Carvers Life1256 Words   |  6 PagesRaymond Clevie Carver was born May 25, 1938 in Clatskanie, Oregon. Carver was raised in the Pacific Northwest by working-class parents. His father, Clevie Raymond Carver, was a sawmill worker, a fisherman, and a heavy drinker. He taught Carver to fish and hunt, and read him Zane Grey novels. Carver’s mother, Ella Beatrice, worked as a waitress and retail clerk. He had one younger brother, James Franklin Carver. At age 19, after graduating from high school, Carver married Maryann Burk. Maryann was

The Da Vinci Code Chapter 105 Free Essays

string(53) " is the quest for lost documents and secret history\." CHAPTER 105 Night had fallen over Rosslyn. Robert Langdon stood alone on the porch of the fieldstone house enjoying the sounds of laughter and reunion drifting through the screened door behind him. The mug of potent Brazilian coffee in his hand had granted him a hazy reprieve from his mounting exhaustion, and yet he sensed the reprieve would be fleeting. We will write a custom essay sample on The Da Vinci Code Chapter 105 or any similar topic only for you Order Now The fatigue in his body went to the core. â€Å"You slipped out quietly,† a voice behind him said. He turned. Sophie’s grandmother emerged, her silver hair shimmering in the night. Her name, for the last twenty-eight years at least, was Marie Chauvel. Langdon gave a tired smile. â€Å"I thought I’d give your family some time together.† Through the window, he could see Sophie talking with her brother. Marie came over and stood beside him. â€Å"Mr. Langdon, when I first heard of Jacques’s murder, I was terrified for Sophie’s safety. Seeing her standing in my doorway tonight was the greatest relief of my life. I cannot thank you enough.† Langdon had no idea how to respond. Although he had offered to give Sophie and her grandmother time to talk in private, Marie had asked him to stay and listen. My husband obviously trusted you, Mr.Langdon, so I do as well. And so Langdon had remained, standing beside Sophie and listening in mute astonishment while Marie told the story of Sophie’s late parents. Incredibly, both had been from Merovingian families – direct descendants of Mary Magdalene and Jesus Christ. Sophie’s parents and ancestors, for protection, had changed their family names of Plantard and Saint-Clair. Their children represented the most direct surviving royal bloodline and therefore were carefully guarded by the Priory. When Sophie’s parents were killed in a car accident whose cause could not be determined, the Priory feared the identity of the royal line had been discovered. â€Å"Your grandfather and I,† Marie had explained in a voice choked with pain, â€Å"had to make a grave decision the instant we received the phone call. Your parents’ car had just been found in the river.† She dabbed at the tears in her eyes. â€Å"All six of us – including you two grandchildren – were supposed to be traveling together in that car that very night. Fortunately we changed our plans at the last moment, and your parents were alone. Hearing of the accident, Jacques and I had no way to know what had really happened†¦ or if this was truly an accident.† Marie looked at Sophie. â€Å"We knew we had to protect our grandchildren, and we did what we thought was best. Jacques reported to the police that your brother and I had been in the car†¦ our two bodies apparently washed off in the current. Then your brother and I went underground with the Priory. Jacques, being a man of prominence, did not have the luxury of disappearin g. It only made sense that Sophie, being the eldest, would stay in Paris to be taught and raised by Jacques, close to the heart and protection of the Priory.† Her voice fell to a whisper. â€Å"Separating the family was the hardest thing we ever had to do. Jacques and I saw each other only very infrequently, and always in the most secret of settings†¦ under the protection of the Priory. There are certain ceremonies to which the brotherhood always stays faithful.† Langdon had sensed the story went far deeper, but he also sensed it was not for him to hear. So he had stepped outside. Now, gazing up at the spires of Rosslyn, Langdon could not escape the hollow gnaw of Rosslyn’s unsolved mystery. Is the Grail really here at Rosslyn? And if so, where are theblade and chalice that Sauniere mentioned in his poem?† I’ll take that,† Marie said, motioning to Langdon’s hand. â€Å"Oh, thank you.† Langdon held out his empty coffee cup. She stared at him. â€Å"I was referring to your other hand, Mr. Langdon.† Langdon looked down and realized he was holding Sauniere’s papyrus. He had taken it from the cryptex once again in hopes of seeing something he had missed earlier. â€Å"Of course, I’m sorry.† Marie looked amused as she took the paper. â€Å"I know of a man at a bank in Paris who is probably very eager to see the return of this rosewood box. Andre Vernet was a dear friend of Jacques, and Jacques trusted him explicitly. Andre would have done anything to honor Jacques’s requests for the care of this box.† Including shooting me, Langdon recalled, deciding not to mention that he had probably broken the poor man’s nose. Thinking of Paris, Langdon flashed on the three senechaux who had been killed the night before. â€Å"And the Priory? What happens now?† â€Å"The wheels are already in motion, Mr. Langdon. The brotherhood has endured for centuries, and it will endure this. There are always those waiting to move up and rebuild.† All evening Langdon had suspected that Sophie’s grandmother was closely tied to the operations of the Priory. After all, the Priory had always had women members. Four Grand Masters had been women. The senechaux were traditionally men – the guardians – and yet women held far more honored status within the Priory and could ascend to the highest post from virtually any rank. Langdon thought of Leigh Teabing and Westminster Abbey. It seemed a lifetime ago. â€Å"Was the Church pressuring your husband not to release the Sangreal documents at the End of Days?† â€Å"Heavens no. The End of Days is a legend of paranoid minds. There is nothing in the Priory doctrine that identifies a date at which the Grail should be unveiled. In fact the Priory has always maintained that the Grail should never be unveiled.† â€Å"Never?† Langdon was stunned. â€Å"It is the mystery and wonderment that serve our souls, not the Grail itself. The beauty of the Grail lies in her ethereal nature.† Marie Chauvel gazed up at Rosslyn now. â€Å"For some, the Grail is a chalice that will bring them everlasting life. For others, it is the quest for lost documents and secret history. You read "The Da Vinci Code Chapter 105" in category "Essay examples" And for most, I suspect the Holy Grail is simply a grand idea†¦ a glorious unattainable treasure that somehow, even in today’s world of chaos, inspires us.† â€Å"But if the Sangreal documents remain hidden, the story of Mary Magdalene will be lost forever,† Langdon said. â€Å"Will it? Look around you. Her story is being told in art, music, and books. More so every day. The pendulum is swinging. We are starting to sense the dangers of our history†¦ and of our destructive paths. We are beginning to sense the need to restore the sacred feminine.† She paused. â€Å"You mentioned you are writing a manuscript about the symbols of the sacred feminine, are you not?† â€Å"I am.† She smiled. â€Å"Finish it, Mr. Langdon. Sing her song. The world needs modern troubadours.† Langdon fell silent, feeling the weight of her message upon him. Across the open spaces, a new moon was rising above the tree line. Turning his eyes toward Rosslyn, Langdon felt a boyish craving to know her secrets. Don’t ask, he told himself. This is not the moment.He glanced at the papyrus in Marie’s hand, and then back at Rosslyn. â€Å"Ask the question, Mr. Langdon,† Marie said, looking amused. â€Å"You have earned the right.† Langdon felt himself flush.† You want to know if the Grail is here at Rosslyn.† â€Å"Can you tell me?† She sighed in mock exasperation. â€Å"Why is it that men simply cannot let the Grail rest?† She laughed, obviously enjoying herself. â€Å"Why do you think it’s here?† Langdon motioned to the papyrus in her hand. â€Å"Your husband’s poem speaks specifically of Rosslyn, except it also mentions a blade and chalice watching over the Grail. I didn’t see any symbols of the blade and chalice up there.† â€Å"The blade and chalice?† Marie asked. â€Å"What exactly do they look like?† Langdon sensed she was toying with him, but he played along, quickly describing the symbols. A look of vague recollection crossed her face. â€Å"Ah, yes, of course. The blade represents all that is masculine. I believe it is drawn like this, no?† Using her index finger, she traced a shape on herpalm. â€Å"Yes,† Langdon said. Marie had drawn the less common† closed† form of the blade, although Langdon had seen the symbol portrayed both ways. â€Å"And the inverse,† she said, drawing again on her palm,† is the chalice, which represents the feminine.† â€Å"Correct,† Langdon said. â€Å"And you are saying that in all the hundreds of symbols we have here in Rosslyn Chapel, these two shapes appear nowhere?† â€Å"I didn’t see them.† â€Å"And if I show them to you, will you get some sleep?† Before Langdon could answer, Marie Chauvel had stepped off the porch and was heading toward the chapel. Langdon hurried after her. Entering the ancient building, Marie turned on the lights and pointed to the center of the sanctuary floor. â€Å"There you are, Mr. Langdon. The blade and chalice.† Langdon stared at the scuffed stone floor. It was blank. â€Å"There’s nothing here†¦ .† Marie sighed and began to walk along the famous path worn into the chapel floor, the same path Langdon had seen the visitors walking earlier this evening. As his eyes adjusted to see the giant symbol, he still felt lost. â€Å"But that’s the Star of Dav – † Langdon stopped short, mute with amazement as it dawned on him. The blade and chalice. Fused as one. The Star of David†¦ the perfect union of male and female†¦ Solomon’s Seal†¦ marking the Holy of Holies, where the male and female deities – Yahweh and Shekinah – were thought to dwell. Langdon needed a minute to find his words. â€Å"The verse does point here to Rosslyn. Completely. Perfectly.† Marie smiled. â€Å"Apparently.† The implications chilled him. â€Å"So the Holy Grail is in the vault beneath us?† She laughed. â€Å"Only in spirit. One of the Priory’s most ancient charges was one day to return the Grail to her homeland of France where she could rest for eternity. For centuries, she was dragged across the countryside to keep her safe. Most undignified. Jacques’s charge when he became Grand Master was to restore her honor by returning her to France and building her a resting place fit for a queen.† â€Å"And he succeeded?† Now her face grew serious. â€Å"Mr. Langdon, considering what you’ve done for me tonight, and as curator of the Rosslyn Trust, I can tell you for certain that the Grail is no longer here.† Langdon decided to press. â€Å"But the keystone is supposed to point to the place where the Holy Grail is hidden now.Why does it point to Rosslyn?† â€Å"Maybe you’re misreading its meaning. Remember, the Grail can be deceptive. As could my late husband.† â€Å"But how much clearer could he be?† he asked. â€Å"We are standing over an underground vault marked by the blade and chalice, underneath a ceiling of stars, surrounded by the art of Master Masons. Everything speaks of Rosslyn.† â€Å"Very well, let me see this mysterious verse.† She unrolled the papyrus and read the poem aloud in a deliberate tone. The Holy Grail ‘neath ancient Roslin waits. The blade and chalice guarding o’er Her gates. Adorned in masters’ loving art, She lies. She rests at last beneath the starry skies. When she finished, she was still for several seconds, until a knowing smile crossed her lips. â€Å"Aah, Jacques.† Langdon watched her expectantly. â€Å"You understand this?† â€Å"As you have witnessed on the chapel floor, Mr. Langdon, there are many ways to see simple things.† Langdon strained to understand. Everything about Jacques Sauniere seemed to have double meanings, and yet Langdon could see no further. Marie gave a tired yawn. â€Å"Mr. Langdon, I will make a confession to you. I have never officially been privy to the present location of the Grail. But, of course, I was married to a person of enormous influence†¦ and my women’s intuition is strong.† Langdon started to speak but Marie continued. â€Å"I am sorry that after all your hard work, you will be leaving Rosslyn without any real answers. And yet, something tells me you will eventually find what you seek. One day it will dawn on you.† She smiled. â€Å"And when it does, I trust that you, of all people, can keep a secret.† There was a sound of someone arriving in the doorway. â€Å"Both of you disappeared,† Sophie said, entering. â€Å"I was just leaving,† her grandmother replied, walking over to Sophie at the door. â€Å"Good night, princess.† She kissed Sophie’s forehead. â€Å"Don’t keep Mr. Langdon out too late.† Langdon and Sophie watched her grandmother walk back toward the fieldstone house. When Sophie turned to him, her eyes were awash in deep emotion. â€Å"Not exactly the ending I expected.† That makes two of us, he thought. Langdon could see she was overwhelmed. The news she had received tonight had changed everything in her life. â€Å"Are you okay? It’s a lot to take in.† She smiled quietly. â€Å"I have a family. That’s where I’m going to start. Who we are and where we came from will take some time.† Langdon remained silent. â€Å"Beyond tonight, will you stay with us?† Sophie asked. â€Å"At least for a few days?† Langdon sighed, wanting nothing more. â€Å"You need some time here with your family, Sophie. I’m going back to Paris in the morning.† She looked disappointed but seemed to know it was the right thing to do. Neither of them spoke for a long time. Finally Sophie reached over and, taking his hand, led him out of the chapel. They walked to a small rise on the bluff. From here, the Scottish countryside spread out before them, suffused in a pale moonlight that sifted through the departing clouds. They stood in silence, holding hands, both of them fighting the descending shroud of exhaustion. The stars were just now appearing, but to the east, a single point of light glowed brighter than any other. Langdon smiled when he saw it. It was Venus. The ancient Goddess shining down with her steady and patient light. The night was growing cooler, a crisp breeze rolling up from the lowlands. After a while, Langdon looked over at Sophie. Her eyes were closed, her lips relaxed in a contented smile. Langdon could feel his own eyes growing heavy. Reluctantly, he squeezed her hand. â€Å"Sophie?† Slowly, she opened her eyes and turned to him. Her face was beautiful in the moonlight. She gave him a sleepy smile. â€Å"Hi.† Langdon felt an unexpected sadness to realize he would be returning to Paris without her. â€Å"I maybe gone before you wake up.† He paused, a knot growing in his throat. â€Å"I’m sorry, I’m not very good at – â€Å" Sophie reached out and placed her soft hand on the side of his face. Then, leaning forward, she kissed him tenderly on the cheek. â€Å"When can I see you again?† Langdon reeled momentarily, lost in her eyes. â€Å"When?† He paused, curious if she had any idea how much he had been wondering the same thing. â€Å"Well, actually, next month I’m lecturing at a conference in Florence. I’ll be there a week without much to do.† â€Å"Is that an invitation?† â€Å"We’d be living in luxury. They’re giving me a room at the Brunelleschi.† Sophie smiled playfully. â€Å"You presume a lot, Mr. Langdon.† He cringed at how it had sounded. â€Å"What I meant – â€Å" â€Å"I would love nothing more than to meet you in Florence, Robert. But on one condition.† Her tone turned serious. â€Å"No museums, no churches, no tombs, no art, no relics.† â€Å"In Florence? For a week? There’s nothing else to do.† Sophie leaned forward and kissed him again, now on the lips. Their bodies came together, softly at first, and then completely. When she pulled away, her eyes were full of promise. â€Å"Right,† Langdon managed. â€Å"It’s a date.† How to cite The Da Vinci Code Chapter 105, Essay examples

Discuss how Shakespeare uses language and dramatic devices in Act 2 Scene 2 Essay Example For Students

Discuss how Shakespeare uses language and dramatic devices in Act 2 Scene 2 Essay Following Act 1 Scene 5, where Romeo and Juliet met at the Grand Capulets Ball, the two meet again in Act 2 Scene 2. During Act 2 Scene 2, commonly known as the balcony scene, Romeo passes to the Capulets Mansion in search of Juliet. On locating her, he stays hidden, witnessing the declaration of Juliets love for him. He overhears her talking aloud of her own love for him, and her concern about the fact that he is a Montague, born of a family that are enemies to her own household: wherefore, or why, she asks herself, could he not have been born with any other name? Shortly after, he reveals himself whilst Juliet, above him on the balcony, is shocked and fears for his safety. However, Romeo persists in attempting to woo her and both are eager to discuss their love for one another. Theyre clearly love-struck and arrange to be married within the following day. They reluctantly part before being interrupted by Juliets Nurse. Throughout the scene, Romeos language is poetic and religious in comparison to previous scenes. His extravagant sentences show his true, genuine love for Juliet. He uses metaphors including: O speak again, bright angel He refers to her as a bright angel against a dark sky. Prior to meeting her, darkness was not just over his head, it was in his heart. Now, he is separated from the dark sky by his vision of Juliet. She signifies purity being a virgin, and her beauty and goodness. Alternatively, her angelic figure could be seen symbolically as foreshadowing her later death. shes above Romeo, theres a correlation to her being above him on the balcony and her being out of Romeos reach; this is a warning to him as he shouldnt be anywhere near her. Romeos emotive language changes dramatically when he meets Juliet; again, it is far more poetic and is such a contrast to how he spoke about his previous love, Rosaline. Earlier in the play (in Act 1 Scene 1), while describing his love for Rosaline, he says, Why, then, O brawling love! O loving hate! these two contradictory phrases known as oxymorons prove how Romeos perspective of love then was simply lust for Rosaline. The word brawling effectively is language of war, not expected language of love. In particular, loving hate suggests how his love for Rosaline was not genuine, it was lust. Whereas, in Act 2 Scene 2, he uses phrases such as dear saint towards Juliet, this religious language differs from the way he spoke beforehand. The word Saint in the Elizabethan era was a word regularly used as the church dominated topics of discussion, being such a controversial subject (Catholic and Protestant rivalry). Saints are often as having halos, which is a symbol of their holiness, moreo ver, Juliets innocence and goodness. Romeos emotions change during the play in a very sudden and abrupt way. Shakespeare uses this to emphasize Romeos character, language and action whilst enhancing his emotions, along with the use of courtly love. use of hyperboles is key to this. The very first line of the scene, Romeo says, He jests at scars that never felt a wound. Romeo is talking about Mercutio joking about something he has never felt, which obviously would have irritated him, consequently he would have used a very bitter tone. This is not normally defined as language of love, especially with the body language and facial expressions the actor would have used to show this. He is talking about love but uses words that convey pain and suffering. It is the east, and Juliet is the Sun. In this line Romeo is talking about Juliet rising like the sun. Romeo thinks Juliet is the sun of his life which he depends on for life. This metaphor becomes influential to the rest of the play in that he views her as the giver of light, above him, and again, out of reach, which essentially relates to the main plot and their forbidden love. Though it is late at night, Juliets surpassing beauty makes Romeo imagine that she is the sun, transforming the darkness into daylight. Romeo likewise personifies the moon, calling it sick and pale with grief at the fact that Juliet, the sun, is far brighter and more beautiful. Romeo then compares Juliet to the stars, claiming that she eclipses the stars as daylight overpowers a lamp her eyes alone shine so bright that they will convince the birds to sing at night as if it were day. Christmas Carol EssayLater on in the scene, Juliet speaks in depth about Romeo, and his name. She repeats the word name on five different occasions. Tis but thy name that is my enemy this shows she thinks of Romeo in individual terms yet the name he possesses is of enemy to her family, and thus her love for him overrides her familys hatred for the Montague name. Shakespeares repetition of the word name really illustrates how this is such an important matter to Juliet, living with such controversial matters. Following this, she mentions, Whats in a name? That which we call a rose. By any other word would smell as sweet referring to Romeo and his name, saying that he would still be as sweet and beautiful if he were called by another name. Likewise, a rose would still be as sweet-smelling and beautiful if it had a different name, however, in referring and comparing Romeos name to being a Rose, theres the fact that there are sharp, needlelike thorns on the rose, conjuring up the image that these are signs of warning about their new-found love. Following this, Romeo pronounces This bud of love, by summers ripening breath, may prove a beauteous flower when we next meet. The opening metaphor conjures up the image that their love is young, innocent, and pure in need of the chance to let their love bloom. Relating to a previous paragraph, he needs her the sun to be there, without her, their love cannot bloom. Juliets desperate need for Romeos word that he loves her, is evident as she puts a straight forward question to him: Dost thou love me? In comparison to the nature of Romeos questions, shes distinctly fearful and in need of his reassurance, noticeably without the somewhat confusing language he may have used earlier. I believe Shakespeare has used this technique of short, to the point questions and clauses, to convey Juliets feelings. However, again, Romeo uses lengthy, romantic answers, while he swears by the moon that he loves her. Romeos exaggerated, deep language, clouded with poetic imagery in some ways is shown to irritate Juliet (looking for direct, rational answers from Romeo) as he swears by the moon which provokes the reply O, swear not by the moon, thinconstant moon, that monthly changes in her circle orb, lest that thy love prove likewise variable. Juliet is concerned that by swearing on the variable, undependable moon, their love will be destined to follow the same path, with Romeo becoming unreliable. She clearly wants and needs a stable relationship if shes going to take such an enormous, life-changing risk. He hasnt proved too reliable yet as he forgot Rosaline so quickly. An effective technique Shakespeare has used is how Juliet interrupts Romeo before it is possible to begin his speech fully, If my hearts dear love - indicating her frustration and intolerance with his extravagant language, solely wanting a simple answer. Further in the scene, Juliet is forced to interrupt Romeo in the midst of his replies to her realistic, practical questioning. The dramatic devices, along with stage directions, would be vital in order to engage the audiences attention. Some of the language used has other forms of innuendo or hidden meanings including: Whats a Montague? It is nor hand nor foot, nor arm nor face, nor any other part belonging to a man. This would help to catch the attention of the audience during the Shakespearean era. On parting, prior to the end of the scene, both Romeo and Juliet retire slowly, and reluctantly as Juliet is called by her Nurse. It is therefore obvious they are both love-struck and do not wish to part. Also, beforehand, they had say goodnight more than once Good night, good night!, O blessà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½d, blessà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½d night! Romeo is most reluctant to leave Juliet, and her presence. In conclusion, theres a great contrast in the language of both Romeo and Juliet, as a consequence of their own fears in such a hasty new relationship. In general, both characters change when they meet again in Act 2 Scene 2; Romeos language becoming much more poetic and positive, and Juliets being more realistic than before whilst at the ball. The forms of dramatic devices used vary for effect, but heavily influence the mood in the play, and the characters feelings. Imagery used such as similes, metaphors and personification contribute to the effect of this scene in particular.

A Book Review From the Shadows by Robert M. Gates

As the lone individual to work in the White House staff of four Presidents and goes up from an entry-level analyst to a CIA director, Robert Gates is exceptionally fit to tell the extraordinary story of the Cold War. Basing on his access to top secret information and top-level participation in policy decision, Gates puts down naked the concealed wars and actions.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on A Book Review: From the Shadows by Robert M. Gates specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The main thesis of Gates is the fall down of the Soviet Union and the steps that the United States took so as to speed up its termination. Gates (1997) explains that â€Å"modernization of ABM sites would continue to be a high Soviet priority until the end of the Cold War† (P. 37). Gates is hurting in his book when he argues that Gorbachev’s frenzied waving of the olive bough left him cynical and vigilant but not sightles s. He is not the earliest to make this declaration, which has glimmered strong arguments. The cold war has history that can be traced to World War I and finished, as it started, with a transformation of route by the man in command at Moscow. As Gates (1997) expresses, â€Å"the last phase of the cold war was an excellent deal like a prizefight wherein an unexpected outbreak of hooks and jabs in the ninth circle placed the huge guy down on a single knee for the tally† (p.125). However, Gate’s account cannot be released out of hand as war is not too tough a word for a martial struggle which from time to time endangered to end development in a day, and the martial and political difficulties lifted by President Reagan in the 1980s could not simply be argued against by a Soviet Union in ongoing economic challenges. The Soviet Union and the United States was unquestionably toe-to-toe during the cold war decades and the fall down of the Soviet Union looked like a military con quer in each respect. Gates believed in the American foreign and military rules-where we sketched the line, the weaponry we acquired to guard it-accounts for the way things happen, and we cannot rather discard the prizefight comparison except if we have a clearer explanation to give in its place.Advertising Looking for term paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Gates got to his corner of the combat zone in August 1968, a day prior to the marching of Warsaw Pact military into Czechoslovakia to invalidate a challenge to Communist law, and he stepped into the CIA’s intelligence management in the position of a Soviet analyst. That certain protrusion of naked martial supremacy by the Soviet Union entirely embodied the nature of its rule for two imminent decades, including suppression of censure at home, supreme military hold up for North Vietnam in its triumphant war in opposition to the United States, backing of Cuban defense forces in Africa, employment of a refined new age group of nuclear armaments beset on Western Europe, martial and economic support for a leftist government in Nicaragua which was aggressively trying to challenge its neighbors, a whole attack of Afghanistan, diligent military novelty, the maltreatment of world’s view to recognize and applause the Soviet state as legal. The solemn question in Gate’s book is how these schemes could all fall short, and the nation that backed them fall down and vanish with no strength to endure the heartbreak of a vast war, which normally marks the failure of realms. Commend for the ending, in Gate’s outlook, goes mainly to the United States, for doing three things correctly. First, it defied Soviet military plans wherever they showed up. The moment the Soviets’ escaped strategic weapons plan was acknowledged for its challenge, the United States boarded on innovation efforts of its own. Gates (1997) explains thi s as â€Å"new missiles with more warheads and more accurate delivery systems, new, command and control systems which would allow the United States to fight a nuclear war by stages† (p. 256). These labors were planned to maintain a possible US risk to use nuclear armaments in the occurrence of war. The new costly round of American expenditure on strategic military was accompanied by readiness to confront Soviet friends, partners, and patrons in Africa, Afghanistan and Central America. Gates says little about the brutality of these surrogate wars; what attracts him is that the American back up for the Mujahedeen and Contras augmented the economic and political force on the Soviet Union, already pushed to meet the many defense funds of Presidents Carter and Reagan.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on A Book Review: From the Shadows by Robert M. Gates specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Gates (199 7), the second fixate that Americans did correctly was to exchange acknowledgment of Europe frontiers for Soviet accord to what was officially known as â€Å"Basket III of the Helsinki Accords of 1975† (p. 256). This was a human rights movement. President Ford was strongly condemned by conservatives for thus legalizing Soviet rule within Eastern Europe in exchange for bare persiflage on human rights, which was expected to be ignored by the Soviets. President Carter was also much condemned for pressing the foundation of human rights whilst it only aggravated the Soviets, radiated a dark covering over arms-control discussions, and endangered growing business associations. According to Gates, apart from IT being an immaterial disruption, the Western force for human rights motivated rebels throughout the Soviet territory and distressed Soviet leaders that their ruling was being questioned. As Gates (1997) explains, the Helsinki Watch group that coiled up in Eastern Europe and Mos cow gripped merciless interest from the secret police, â€Å"but jail, exile, and brutal maltreatment in psychiatric facilities became the subjects of a robust underground literature† (p. 36). Broadcasting such maltreatment steadily damaged the communist affectations that the party’s rule was founded on anything in addition to the power of the police and army. When Gorbachev, looking for a constituency for transformation, embraced honesty, he summoned to civic life a class previously schooled in non-interventionist debate and disappointed with the heritage of Lenin. Finally, Bush was assaulted by US activists for his August 1991 speech conveyed in Kiev; capital of Ukraine, after the bonds gripping the Soviet Union jointly had clearly unraveled to the point of contravention. Gorbachev’s transformation had run out of haze and reports of a forceful coup were far-reaching Moscow.Advertising Looking for term paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Gates (1997) says that, â€Å"the thrashing of Ukraine, deafening in its stress for sovereignty would be the last straw for the man Bush saw as his colleague in maintaining peace† (p.518). Any self-effacing tilt of the cap to Ukrainian expectations would have succeeded Bush approval at home. However, Gates (1997) explains that â€Å"he turned down the Ukrainian parliament, in the final weeks of the life of the evil empire† (p. 257). Critical review Regrettably, Robert Gates decided to write down a book seeking broad audience and disregarding source references.. Gate’s book, part of account and part of past review , claims to deal with the whole phase from 1969 to 1991, but it is feeble on the era prior to the 1980’s, except from some fascinating remarks on the Carter administration. It approaches its hold happening on the Reagan and Bush administrators. Also, even though hyped as the story of the first CIA analyst to turn out to be a director of central i ntelligence, Gate’s encounters as a sharp analyst were concise. Moreover, aside from progressively added executive positions and senior staffs in the CIA, almost half of his Washington vocation was used up in three trips to the National Security Council (NSC) STAFF IN THE White House. Gates (1997) puts it in reference to his era in the White House as, â€Å"I spent more years working there than any president but Franklin Roosevelt† (p.574). Gates has several insightful observations to formulate about American procedures. He portrays attention to the fundamental underlying permanence of rules in all cold war presidents, with a changeable mix of disagreement and varying combinations of hawks and doves in every government. Specifically, he puts emphasis on the commonly unrewarding continuity of rules under Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter, together with a common military increase, a strong line pressing civil rights issues, and even concealed operations. In my opinion, he i s right on this. In conclusion, basing on his access to top secret information, Gates tells the inside story of the five presidents and how they won the cold war. The main thesis of his work is the fall down of the Soviet Union the steps that the United States took so as to speed up its termination. However, Gate’s book is much criticized. One of the criticisms is that part of account and part of past review , claims to deal with the whole phase from 1969 to 1991, but it is feeble on the era prior to the 1980’s, except from some fascinating remarks on the Carter administration. Reference Gates, R.M. (1997). From the shadows: the ultimate insider’s story of five presidents and how they won the cold war. New York: Simon Schuster. This term paper on A Book Review: From the Shadows by Robert M. Gates was written and submitted by user Travis Golden to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Thurgood Marshall, First Black Supreme Court Justice

Thurgood Marshall, First Black Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall (July 2, 1908–January 24, 1993), the great-grandson of slaves, was the first African-American justice appointed to the United States Supreme Court, where he served from 1967 to 1991. Earlier in his career, Marshall was a pioneering civil rights attorney who successfully argued the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education, a major step in the fight to desegregate American schools. The 1954 Brown decision is considered one of the most significant civil rights victories of the 20th century. Fast Facts: Thurgood Marshall Known For: First African-American Supreme Court justice, landmark civil rights lawyerAlso Known As: Thoroughgood Marshall, Great DissenterBorn: July 2, 1908 in Baltimore, MarylandParents: William Canfield Marshall, Norma AricaDied: January 24, 1993 in Bethesda, MarylandEducation: Lincoln University, Pennsylvania  (BA), Howard University  (LLB)Published Works: Thurgood Marshall: His Speeches, Writings, Arguments, Opinions, and Reminiscences (The Library of Black America series) (2001)Awards and Honors: The Thurgood Marshall Award, established in 1992 by the American Bar Association, is presented annually to a recipient to recognize long-term contributions by members of the legal profession to the advancement of civil rights, civil liberties, and human rights in the United States, the ABA says. Marshall received the inaugural award in 1992.Spouse(s): Cecilia Suyat Marshall  (m. 1955–1993),  Vivian Burey Marshall (m. 1929–1955)Children: John W. Marshall,  Thurgoo d Marshall, Jr.Notable Quote: It is interesting to me that the very people...that would object to sending their white children to school with Negroes are eating food that has been prepared, served, and almost put in their mouths by the mothers of those children. Childhood Marshall (named Thoroughgood at birth) was born in Baltimore on Jan. 24, 1908, the second son of Norma and William Marshall. Norma was an elementary school teacher and William worked as a railroad porter. When Thurgood was 2 years old, the family moved to Harlem in New York City, where Norma earned an advanced teaching degree at Columbia University. The Marshalls returned to Baltimore in 1913 when Thurgood was 5. Thurgood and his brother Aubrey attended an elementary school for blacks only and their mother taught in one as well. William Marshall, who had never graduated from high school, worked as a waiter in a whites-only country club. By second grade, Marshall, weary of being teased about his unusual name and equally weary of writing it out, shortened it to â€Å"Thurgood.† In high school, Marshall earned decent grades but had a tendency to stir up trouble in the classroom. As punishment for some of his misdeeds, he was ordered to memorize portions of the U.S. Constitution. By the time he left high school, Marshall knew the entire document. Marshall always knew that he wanted to go to college but realized his parents couldnt afford to pay his tuition. Thus, he began saving money while he was in high school, working as a delivery boy and a waiter. In September 1925, Marshall entered Lincoln University, an African-American college in Philadelphia. He intended to study dentistry. College Years Marshall embraced college life. He became the star of the debate club and joined a fraternity; he was also very popular with young women. Yet Marshall found himself ever aware of the need to earn money. He worked two jobs and supplemented that income with his earnings from winning card games on campus. Armed with the defiant attitude that had gotten him into trouble in high school, Marshall was suspended twice for fraternity pranks. But Marshall was also capable of more serious endeavors, as when he helped to integrate a local movie theater. When Marshall and his friends attended a movie in downtown Philadelphia, they were ordered to sit in the balcony (the only place that blacks were allowed). The young men refused and sat in the main seating area. Despite being insulted by white patrons, they remained in their seats and watched the movie. From then on, they sat wherever they liked at the theater. By his second year at Lincoln, Marshall had decided he didnt want to become a dentist, planning instead to use his oratory gifts as a practicing attorney. (Marshall, who was 6-foot-2, later joked that his hands were probably too big for him to have become a dentist.) Marriage and Law School In his junior year, Marshall met Vivian Buster Burey, a student at the University of Pennsylvania. They fell in love and, despite Marshalls mothers objections- she felt they were too young and too poor- married in 1929 at the beginning of Marshalls senior year. After graduating from Lincoln in 1930, Marshall enrolled at Howard University Law School, a historically black college in Washington, D.C., where his brother Aubrey was attending medical school. Marshalls first choice had been the University of Maryland Law School, but he was refused admission because of his race. Norma Marshall pawned her wedding and engagement rings to help her younger son pay his tuition. Marshall and his wife lived with his parents in Baltimore to save money. Marshall commuted by train to Washington every day and worked three part-time jobs to make ends meet. Marshalls hard work paid off. He rose to the top of the class in his first year and won the plum job of an assistant in the law school library. There, he worked closely with the man who became his mentor, law school dean Charles Hamilton Houston. Houston, who resented the discrimination he had suffered as a soldier during World War I, had made it his mission to educate a new generation of African-American lawyers. He envisioned a group of attorneys who would use their law degrees to fight racial discrimination. Houston was convinced that the basis for that fight would be the U.S. Constitution itself. He made a profound impression upon Marshall. While working in the Howard law library, Marshall came into contact with several lawyers and activists from the NAACP. He joined the organization and became an active member. Marshall graduated first in his class in 1933 and passed the bar exam later that year. Working for the NAACP Marshall opened his own law practice in Baltimore in 1933 at the age of 25. He had few clients at first, and most of those cases involved minor charges, such as traffic tickets and petty thefts. It did not help that Marshall opened his practice in the midst of the Great Depression. Marshall became increasingly active in the local NAACP, recruiting new members for its Baltimore branch. Because he was well-educated, light-skinned, and dressed well, however, he sometimes found it difficult to find common ground with some African-Americans. Some felt Marshall had an appearance closer to that of a white man than to one of their own race. But Marshalls down-to-earth personality and easy communication style helped to win over many new members. Soon, Marshall began taking cases for the NAACP and was hired as part-time legal counsel in 1935. As his reputation grew, Marshall became known not only for his skill as a lawyer but also for his bawdy sense of humor and love of storytelling. In the late 1930s, Marshall represented African-American teachers in Maryland who were receiving only half the pay that white teachers earned. Marshall won equal-pay agreements in nine Maryland school boards and in 1939, convincing a federal court to declare unequal salaries for public school teachers unconstitutional. Marshall also had the satisfaction of working on a case, ​Murray v. Pearson, in which he helped a black man gain admission to the University of Maryland Law School in 1935. That same school had rejected Marshall only five years earlier. NAACP Chief Counsel In 1938, Marshall was named chief counsel to the NAACP in New York. Thrilled about having a steady income, he and Buster moved to Harlem, where Marshall had first gone with his parents as a young child. Marshall, whose new job required extensive travel and an immense workload, typically worked on discrimination cases in areas such as housing, labor, and travel accommodations. Marshall, in 1940, won the first of his Supreme Court victories in Chambers v. Florida, in which the Court overturned the convictions of four black men who had been beaten and coerced into confessing to a murder. For another case, Marshall was sent to Dallas to represent a black man who had been summoned for jury duty and who had been dismissed when court officers realized he was not white. Marshall met with Texas governor James Allred, whom he successfully persuaded that African-Americans had a right to serve on a jury. The governor went a step further, promising to provide Texas Rangers to protect those blacks who served on juries. Yet not every situation was so easily managed. Marshall had to take special precautions whenever he traveled, especially when working on controversial cases. He was protected by NAACP bodyguards and had to find safe housing- usually in private homes- wherever he went. Despite these security measures, Marshall often feared for his safety because of numerous threats. He was forced to use evasive tactics, such as wearing disguises and switching to different cars during trips. On one occasion, Marshall was taken into custody by a group of policemen while in a small Tennessee town working on a case. He was forced from his car and driven to an isolated area near a river, where an angry mob of white men awaited. Marshalls companion, another black attorney, followed the police car and refused to leave until Marshall was released. The police, perhaps because the witness was a prominent Nashville attorney, drove Marshall back to town. Separate but Not Equal Marshall continued to make significant gains in the battle for racial equality in the areas of both voting rights and education. He argued a case before the U.S. Supreme Court in 1944 (Smith v. Allwright), claiming that Texas Democratic Party rules unfairly denied blacks the right to vote in primaries. The Court agreed, ruling that all citizens, regardless of race, had the constitutional right to vote in primaries. In 1945, the NAACP made a momentous change in its strategy. Instead of working to enforce the separate but equal provision of the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision, the NAACP strove to achieve equality in a different way. Since the notion of separate but equal facilities had never truly been accomplished in the past (public services for blacks were uniformly inferior to those for whites), the only solution would be to make all public facilities and services open to all races. Two important cases tried by Marshall between 1948 and 1950 contributed greatly to the eventual overturning of Plessy v. Ferguson. In each case (Sweatt v. Painter and McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents), the universities involved (the University of Texas and University of Oklahoma) failed to provide for black students an education equal to that provided for white students. Marshall successfully argued before the U.S. Supreme Court that the universities did not provide equal facilities for either student. The Court ordered both schools to admit black students into their mainstream programs. Overall, between 1940 and 1961, Marshall won 29 of the 32 cases he argued before the U.S. Supreme Court. Brown v. Board of Education In 1951, a court decision in Topeka, Kansas became the stimulus for Thurgood Marshalls most significant case. Oliver Brown of Topeka had sued that citys Board of Education, claiming that his daughter was forced to travel a long distance from her home just to attend a segregated school. Brown wanted his daughter to attend the school nearest their home- a school designated for whites only. The U.S. District Court of Kansas disagreed, asserting that the African-American school offered an education equal in quality to the white schools of Topeka. Marshall headed the appeal of the Brown case, which he combined with four other similar cases and filed as Brown v. Board of Education. The case came before the U.S. Supreme Court in December 1952. Marshall made it clear in his opening statements to the Supreme Court that what he sought was not merely a resolution for the five individual cases; his goal was to end racial segregation in schools. He argued that segregation caused blacks to feel innately inferior. The opposing lawyer argued that integration would harm white children. The debate went on for three days. The Court adjourned on Dec. 11, 1952, and did not convene on Brown again until June 1953. But the justices did not render a decision; instead, they requested that the attorneys supply more information. Their main question: Did the attorneys believe that the 14th Amendment, which addresses citizenship rights, prohibited segregation in schools? Marshall and his team went to work to prove that it did. After hearing the case again in December 1953, the Court did not come to a decision until May 17, 1954. Chief Justice Earl Warren announced that the Court had come to the unanimous decision that segregation in the public schools violated the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment. Marshall was ecstatic; he always believed he would win, but was surprised that there were no dissenting votes. The Brown decision did not result in overnight desegregation of southern schools. While some school boards did begin making plans for desegregating schools, few southern school districts were in a hurry to adopt the new standards. Loss and Remarriage In November 1954, Marshall received devastating news about Buster. His 44-year-old wife had been ill for months but had been misdiagnosed as having the flu or pleurisy. In fact, she had incurable cancer. However, when she found out, she inexplicably kept her diagnosis a secret from her husband. When Marshall learned how ill Buster was, he set all work aside and took care of his wife for nine weeks before she died in February 1955. The couple had been married for 25 years. Because Buster had suffered several miscarriages, they had never had the family they so desired. Marshall mourned but did not remain single for long. In December 1955, Marshall married Cecilia Cissy Suyat, a secretary at the NAACP. He was 47, and his new wife was 19 years his junior. They went on to have two sons, Thurgood, Jr. and John. Work for the Federal Government In September 1961, Marshall was rewarded for his years of legal work when President John F. Kennedy appointed him a judge on the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals. Although he hated to leave the NAACP, Marshall accepted the nomination. It took nearly a year for him to be approved by the Senate, many of whose members still resented his involvement in school desegregation. In 1965, President Lyndon Johnson named Marshall to the post of solicitor general of the United States. In this role, Marshall was responsible for representing the government when it was being sued by a corporation or an individual. In his two years as solicitor general, Marshall won 14 of the 19 cases he argued. Supreme Court Justice On June 13, 1967, President Johnson announced Thurgood Marshall as the nominee for Supreme Court Justice to fill the vacancy created by Justice Tom C. Clarks departure. Some southern senators- notably Strom Thurmond- fought Marshalls confirmation, but Marshall was confirmed and then sworn in on Oct. 2, 1967. At the age of 59, Marshall became the first African-American to serve on the U.S. Supreme Court. Marshall took a liberal stance in most of the Courts rulings. He consistently voted against any form of censorship and was strongly opposed to the death penalty. In the 1973 Roe v. Wade case, Marshall voted with the majority to uphold a womans right to choose to have an abortion. Marshall was also in favor of affirmative action. As more conservative justices were appointed to the Court during the Republican administrations of presidents Ronald Reagan, Richard Nixon, and Gerald Ford, Marshall found himself increasingly in the minority, often as the lone voice of dissent. He became known as The Great Dissenter. In 1980, the University of Maryland honored Marshall by naming its new law library after him. Still bitter about how the university had rejected him 50 years earlier, Marshall refused to attend the dedication. Retirement and Death Marshall resisted the idea of retirement, but by the early 1990s, his health was failing and he had problems with both his hearing and vision. On June 27, 1991, Marshall submitted his letter of resignation to President George H. W. Bush. Marshall was replaced by Justice Clarence Thomas. Marshall died of heart failure on Jan. 24, 1993, at age 84; he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery. Marshall was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Bill Clinton in November 1993. Sources Cassie, Ron. â€Å"The Legacy of Thurgood Marshall.†Ã‚  Baltimore Magazine, 25 Jan. 2019.Crowther, Linnea. â€Å"Thurgood Marshall: 20 Facts.†Ã‚  Legacy.com, 31 Jan. 2017.â€Å"Past Recipients Keynote Speakers.†Ã‚  American Bar Association.â€Å"Thurgood Marshalls Unique Supreme Court Legacy.†Ã‚  National Constitution Center – Constitutioncenter.org.

The Charismatic Gifts Debate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Charismatic Gifts Debate - Essay Example Some people believe that the sign gifts exist in the present day. They believe miracles and signs that used to happen in the past are still the same miracles that happen in the present day2. The people that hold this view believe that since the miracles also happened after the coming of Jesus they exist to the present day. An example is; the signs God gave to Moses to show the Israelites that God exists, resemble those that happened in the New Testament. The signs the disciples received in the form of gifts that appeared like fire flames were also found in the New Testament. Therefore, people who believe in the existence of the signs believe this because God still showed his power and presence in the New Testament. They believe that the sign gifts were in the world all the time even during the times when the disciples of God preached the word of God throughout the nation. They believe that the people who do not experience these miracles and the sign gifts are people who do not believ e3. 1. Adeyemi Remi, Gifts of the Holy Spirit: Receiving the Content of God's Heart (Atlantic: Airleaf, 2006), 43. 2. Robinson Darrell, Incredibly Gifted: A Fresh, Biblical Look at Spiritual Gifts (Hannibal: Hannibal books, 2003), 12-23. 3. Stamp John, The signs of an apostle, and the evidence for the cessation of miraculous signs (New York: Cengage Publisher. 2006), 78-92. There are also people who believe that the sign gifts are things that God used to reach people in the past, but they do not exist in the present world. They concluded this by studying the nature and purpose of these gifts. They believe that the signs used by God in the past were for people to understand and realize the new things that God was doing. This is because God used the signs to show the people that he was instructing them. Therefore, remove any doubts that they might have that it was not him. Some of the things that God wanted man to do were things that they had not done because it was unlawful. An examp le is like when Jesus allowed the uncircumcised Gentiles to be among the people of God. If God had not used exceptional signs to show that he was the one that had accepted the Gentiles, the people could never believe. They could never allow them to join their religion. Jesus went ahead and swept everyone from the temple as traders used the house of prayer as a place to sell their merchandise. If God had sent a prophet or an ordinary man to come and chase away the traders from the temple, the traders could never have listened. Therefore, in the past, for the people of God to change and do what he required, they had to see a miracle or a sign4. Even the groups that mocked Jesus and never believed, asked Jesus to demonstrate a sign so that they could believe. The biggest sign that God gave to humankind and enabled them believe and spread the good news of God was when Jesus resurrected. When the people who opposed Jesus saw the sign from the resurrection of Jesus, most of them became be lievers. 4. Eddy Paul and Boyd Gregory, Across the Spectrum: Understanding Issues in Evangelical Theology (New York: Baker Academic, 2009), 34-35. They even preached the word of God to other places of the world, as they knew that it was God who had spoken to them. This was the main sign to make all people believers of God and his teachings. God gave the apostles sign gifts to facilitate the spread of the word of God5. There are people who believ

Corporate social responsibility Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 10000 words

Corporate social responsibility - Dissertation Example The internal and external forces that are contributory for quality management for the company to be able to enforce corporate social responsibility (Industryplayer.com, 2013). †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..9 Figure 2. Building a model for ethical corporate social responsibility (publicrelationssolutions.com, 2013). †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..17 Figure 3. Kim, 2006 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.30 Figure 4. Spatial options for companies on what to choose as environment for its CSR implementation (Panasonic.com.au, 2013) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..31 Chapter 1 Introduction Corporate social responsibility has been seriously considered significant part of business leadership and in meeting the stakeholder’s expectations specially the conscientious consumers or investors who wanted to maintain a Socially Responsible Investment (SRI). Thus, corporate social responsibility entails more qualified employees and sustaining corporate political interests to meet accountability and responsibility. Purpose of the study This paper will provide a meta-analysis of the theory of corporate social responsibility and its application in business management and in envisioning a community where people are enjoying too of the corporate vision for an improved economic well-being of the community. Significance of the Study This study is imperative to contribute scholarly studies on corporate social responsibility and how the companies’ empirical experiences sup port their endeavours to gain corporate credibility and integrity. It will also facilitate in the...1-3). Transparency require that the company must publicized their annual reports to detail their achievements, their credibility and best practices, including those matters where they need improvement and where they could potentially leverage in the next period of business operations (Burja & Mihalache, 2010, pp. 1-3).The inability of the company to perform the desired targets will create internal and ex...

Race and Your Community Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Race and Your Community - Essay Example who has not had much engagement in the arena of race discourse and who have been spared the oppressions wrought upon racial minorities, it is all too easy for me to forget that there are looming issues that need to be resolved and ugly truths that have to be confronted. And while much has changed since the 1800’s, and new developments have been introduced that have sought to alleviate the racial divide not only in this State and in this country but in the world as well, it is incorrect to believe that the problem has been completely solved. We must be grateful that the world we have now is a better, more tolerant and more accepting world, but we must still try to think of steps to further reduce the racial divide. I look around me and I see that members of my community look like me. White Americans easily form 70% of my community, though there are those of African American, Asian and Latin American descent around me. Caucasians look alike for obvious reasons – skin color, eye color and hair color reveal a common racial blueprint. Even the most idle observer would perhaps be able to distinguish among the races because of these distinctions. It is also worthy to note that the racial divide seems to extend to choice in fashion, music, and the like. African-Americans tend to dress alike, for instance, and have the same tastes in music. For example, Tennessee boasts of a long tradition of gospel music, commonly associated with African Americans. Jazz music is also another Tennessee tradition. The Harlem Renaissance of the 1920’s – the period wherein blacks made their mark in the artistic scene – saw black musicals and jazz music emerging in the mainstream scene. Indeed, the differences in the musical tastes run deep and add a colorful flavor to the Tennessee cultural collage. Of course, there are many songs of recent vintage that cut across race, particularly among the younger generation. Our political office is comprised of African-Americans and Caucasians

Literature Review On Crafting Strategy

Literature Review On Crafting Strategy Recent business environments require quicker and more adequate decision-making by firms than ever before. Because the environmental changes are extremely large, the decision makers may confront difficulties in predicting their futures. The concept of a strategy based on a purpose-oriented approach provides original strategic alternatives. Because the concept of strategy is generally abstract, there exist many perspectives with respect to its formation and implementation. In fact, scholars and practitioners comment on the diverse aspects of strategy, such as, there is no single, universally accepted definition of corporate strategy by Pettigrew (1987a). However Mintzbergs has done a serious number of researches backing up his theory on Crafting Strategy as a potential strategy progress with loads of valid conclusions. Introduction: The present Critical Literature Review sets to explore the challenging task of envisaging, conceiving, and realizing crafting strategies by proposing a deep critical evaluation of the subject. Along the way the essay will compare and contrast different authors views on an issue, criticise aspects of methodology, note areas in which authors are in disagreement, highlight exemplary studies, highlight gaps in research, show how Mintzbergs study relates to previous studies, show how his study relates to the literature in general and conclude by summarising what the literature says. History Literature on strategy emergence has a long history (Bower, 1970; Bower and Doz, 1979; Burgelman, 1983; Quinn, 1978, 1980, 1982; Nelson and Winter, 1982; Mintzberg, 1978, 1987; Mintzberg and Waters, 1984, 1985, 1990; Prahalad and Hamel, 1990; Pettigrew, 1985). The process view of strategy has been revived in the Eighties by Mintzberg work on Crafting strategy (1987), and later by the work of Hamel and Prahalad on Strategic Intent (1996). Many of them share a common view on the theory and practice of strategy as they generally agreed, strategy is a plan to be executed in the future to achieve specific objectives. However, this view of strategy is limited and potentially dangerous because it obscures the rich and paradoxical nature of the wider concept of strategy, and it can result in significant opportunities and danger signs being overlooked. (Mintzberg, 1987) Overall strategic observation: Mintzberg, Alilstrand and Lampel (1998, p.9) have even encapsulated the paradox of strategy with the following observation: Most people, managers and as above mentioned academics define strategy as a plan, or something equivalent a direction, a guide or course of action into the future, a path to get from here to there. However as it has been stated above this is potentially dangerous. Strategy, therefore, according to Mintzberg should be viewed as a combination of the actions that are intended to result in anticipated business outcomes; and the actions that emerge as a result of the many complex activities that are undertaken within an organization. Thereby strategy become a process itself, one that involves the co-evolution of discourse nature individual and society. Drawbacks of certain strategic approach uncertain future How to create and develop the perfect strategy has been the question of managers, business owners, military commanders and even individuals for ages. This simple question seems to be fundamental for strategic management, but there are still surprisingly few answers in strategy research. Numerous academics and managers states that the optimal way to approach the perfect strategy is by attempting to predict a foreseeable future, making decisions in advance, and controlling the realization of strategic plans (e.g. Rumelt, Schendel, and Teece, 1991, 1994). However as there are as many potential futures as companies a single formal strategy plan cannot be used especially when it is based on prediction. Although any company that cannot imagine the future is unlikely to be around to enjoy it. Strategic managers living in the here and now, and only concerned about the next quarter, will fail at the task of imagining the future (Hamel and Prahalad, 1996: 242). Diverse benefits In recent years there has been a growing body of opinion amongst scholars in the field of strategic business management that some of the central tenets of classical strategic theory are no longer as appropriate as they might once have been (Thompson, 1967; Westley and Mintzberg, 1989; Whittington, 1993; Mintzberg, 1994; Hamel and Prahalad, 1995; Camillus, 1996; Hamel, 1996; Kouzmin et al., 1997; Mainwaring, 1997; Mintzberg et al., 1998; Kouzmin and Jarman, 1999; Parker, 2002). Several studies have confirmed that managerial choice and design of strategy in terms of planning and analysis activities are beneficial in decision and strategy making (e.g. Dean and Sharfman, 1996; Miller and Cardinal, 1994) and other studies have identified beneficial supplemental strategic planning practices, such as programmed conflict approaches (Schweiger, Sandberg and Rechner, 1989) and implementation tactics (Nutt, 1987). However, there are conflicting evidence regarding the benefits of strategic planning (Boyd, 1987; Mintzberg, 1994; Pearce et al, 1987) and strategy goal and method consensus (Dess, 1987). Moreover, in practice, strategy-making sometimes seems to differ from the normative managerial choice, design and planning ideal. These differences are most evident under more complicated circumstances, in uncertain strategic decisions (Mintzberg et al 1976; Nutt, 1984), in firms with diverse and conflicting goals (Quinn, 1980; Pettigrew, 1973; Eisenhardt and Bourgeois, 19 88b), in unstable (Mintzberg, 1973; Fredrickson and Mitchell, 1984; Fredrickson, 1984) or fast changing environments (Bourgeois and Eisenhardt, 1988a) and in large and complex firms (Bower and Doz, 1979; Burgelman, 1983b). The fundamental divergence in these strategy process perspectives, compared to the traditional design view, is that under these conditions strategy process and action involve organizational learning (Mintzberg, 1990). Strategists learn from, and strategies are informed by implementation and experience, and interactions between various organizational levels (Burgelman, 1983a, b; Mintzberg, 1978; 1987; Mintzberg and McHugh, 1985; Pettigrew and Whipp, 1991; Quinn, 1980). An even more recent research supports Fredrickson and Mitchell above mentioned statement that the business landscape is neither stable nor predictable, making prediction and control very difficult (e.g. Burgelman, 2002; Hamel, 2000; Mà ¼ller-Stewens and Lechner, 2001; Leibold, Probst, and Gibbert, 2002) and by this statement and research they highly disagrees with (e.g. Rumelt, Schendel, and Teece, 1991, 1994) declaration. The actual strategy activities that form these strategic positions essentially remain unclear in strategy content research (Cockburn, Henderson and Stern, 2000). Conversely, strategy process views (e.g. Mintzberg, 1978; Johnson, 1987, 1988; Mintzberg and McHugh, 1985; Mintzberg and Waters, 1985; Pettigrew, 1977; 1985a, 1987a; Quinn, 1980) provide rich and systematic descriptions showing that strategy making involves a variety of factors and contextual influences, besides analytical exercises by managers in the centre as it has been identified in previous paragraph s. Strategy-making activities have also partially been specified, such as routines in decision processes (Mintzberg, Raisinghani, and Thà ©oret, 1976). Example: The business world is changing fast as it has been mentioned above. Lewis E. Piatt, former Hewlett-Packard chief executive officer (CEO), argues, Anyone who tells you they have a 5 or 10 year plan is probably crazy. With rapid change comes uncertainty. And with uncertainty comes risk and great opportunities. If the business bet big today, for example, they may fundamentally reshape an emerging market to their advantage. Or they may suffer losses that throw their company into bankruptcy. If they wait for the uncertainty surrounding a possible opportunity to disappear, on the other hand, they may avoid making some foolhardy mistakes or they may lose their first mover advantages to a more aggressive competitor. In choosing strategies under uncertainty, there are no easy answers. Yet many business strategists make it harder than it has to be, simply by relying on outdated strategic-planning and decision-making approaches states Lewis E. Piatt. These tried and true approaches, designed to optimize strategic decision making in predictable environments, systematically fail in times of high uncertainty, as it can be experienced today. On the other hand Foresight an accurate view of the future is essential in generating the best forecasts and making the right strategy choices like Rumelt, Schendel, and Teece argued. The typical process assumes that the strategists possess the foresight to translate their knowledge of the future into point forecasts of key value drivers. These point forecasts allow for precise estimates of net present value (NPV) and other financial measures, which, in turn, determine which strategy will deliver the highest return. In addition, the typical process assumes that a deep, analytical understanding of todays market environment and todays company capability ties is the key to developing foresight about the future. For example, industry analysis frameworks, like Porters Five Forces, are at the heart of most prototypical processes because it is implicitly assumed that understanding the microeconomic drivers of todays market environment is essential to understanding the strategies that will win in tomorrows ma rket. Welch sad its more important to imaginative than to be predictive. Imagination is one of the biggest corporate challenge of the last century. Its about developing a clear idea of what is going on around the company and taking advantage of that (Welch, personal communication, April 2002). Similarly to Welch, Mintzberg after carrying out over 20 fairly reliable researches clearly states that knowing the organization capabilities well enough to think deeply enough about its strategic directions is highly important, but knowing the strategic direction does not mean having a strategic plan or trying to predict the future and make decisions in advance to get to that goal rather it means that strategic plan will informally shape as a reflection of the environmental effects as they go on like Welch stated strategy is taking advantage of what is going on around the business. Kaplan highly supports Mintzberg theory and after carrying out valid and reliable researches over 30 businesses with Be inhocker he belives that successful companies only generate strategic plans to prepare their management team but real strategic decisions made in real time. When Mintzberg in his article recounts the events of leading players like Volkswagen over a certain period the dangers attaching to the biography apply. There can be little doubt that Mintzberg has accurately recorded events, but the interpretation of these events and the meaning of the actions that the companies took are affected by the authors personal paradigm. The reader is being invited to note the strategic techniques and to apply them to their own situation. Particular care has to be taken with idiosyncratic accounts, such as Townsend (1970) and Roddick (1991), where the distinctive character and personal style of the writer may make it difficult for ordinary mid or small business managers to apply the adduced lessons and techniques, dispassionate, objective assessment can be difficult when confronted with skilfully compiled accounts of past events. Apart from gathering developed and chronological lists and graphs of the most important actions taken by each organization, he us ed interviews and in-depth reports to study what appears to be the key point of change in each organizations strategy. Structured interviews pose specific questions to the interviewee, which suggests that the interviewer has an agenda formed by previous study which could weakened the validity of the source. The unstructured interview, on the other hand, gives freedom to the interviewee to talk about what they thought was important and interesting which could also result one point of view. In practice, interviews tend to be a mixture of both approaches, if only to avoid the risk of the interviewee losing the plot, but the free flow of ideas may reveal more than the subject intended. The more that is known about the period or the company under study, the better able the interviewer is to detect weak signals in what has been said and to follow them up. Although the evidence gained is somewhat weakened, it may be necessary to agree to anonymity, but Bower (1970) is an example of a powerful study conducted on an anonymous company and its managers. Evidence, then although often of questionable veracity, is the very stuff of history and the Mintzberg cannot apply purely scientific methodology to its interpretation. Wider knowledge of the period and the actors within it helps to develop a feel for the likely truth before going on craft and interpret the primary evidence. I have six honest working men Who taught me all I know Their names are: why and what and when And who and where and how (Rudyard Kipling). Kiplings little verse which is quoted above is a valuable guide to interpretation. These questions enable Mintzberg to press more information out of the assembled evidence. Similarly, when making a deduction, or gaining an insight, it is a good discipline to ask, What are my reasons for making this assertion? Analytical interpretation has to be disciplined, and conclusions only drawn when fully supported by evidence. It is at this stage that, the notion of crafting is most evident, as Mintzberg engages with the material in the search for insight and revelation, whilst maintaining impartiality and objectivity. Later on Mintzberg (1995) suggest that Chandler (1962) definition is the first modern definition of business strategy. If this definition were placed in the previous section on planning it would fit perfectly. Andrews (in Learned et al., 1965, p. 15) defines strategy similar to Mintzberg later theories: the pattern of objectives, purposes or goals and the major policies and plans for achieving these goals, stated in such a way to define what business the company is in and the kind of company it is to be. Andrews has defined strategy as a plan, one of the objectives of which should be specifically to define what business the company is in and the kind of company it is to be. This caveat, that at least one task must be achieved, is perhaps the first generic strategy! A strategy is the pattern or plan that integrates an organisations major goals, policies, and action sequences into a cohesive whole. A well formulated strategy helps to marshal and allocate an organisations resources into a unique and viable posture based on its relative internal competencies and shortcomings, anticipated changes in the environment, and contingent moves by intelligent opponents (Mintzberg et al., 1995, p. 7). This definition describes strategy as a plan or alternatively as a pattern. The concept of strategy as pattern is an idea that Mintzberg uses often (Mintzberg and Waters, 1985; Mintzberg et al., 1998). Mintzberg et al. (1998, p. 9) develop the concept of strategy as pattern with further concepts that they describe as the Five Ps for Strategy; Plan, Pattern, Position, Perspective and Ploy. Here, it is suggested that strategy is often described as a plan but when managers are asked what they actually did, they describe strategy as a pattern, or repetition of actions taken in previous years, that is subsequently adjusted to meet current criteria. Hence, strategy as a plan is looking forward and strategy as a pattern is looking backward; that is, relating to past behaviour. Both ideas have relevance, because planning would be impossible without looking forward and backward. In addition, Mintzberg et al. (1998, p. 13) suggest that it is also important to look inward and outward and up and down, which they describe, respectively, as strategy as a position and as a perspective, namely an organisations fundamental way of doing things. Their fifth concept, strategy as a ploy, treats it as a specific action designed to outwit an opponent or competitor. However, it is possible that this concept is more closely related to tactics than to strategy. The five Ps of Mintzberg et al. (1998) provide additional viewpoints for looking at strategy. However, their views add very little to the mainstream ideas of other scholars who believe that, in some significant fashion, strategy is intimately related to planning. Apart from Mintzberg 1987 article there are other similar approaches both in strategy content and process views (e.g. managers as architects, Andrews, 1980; formulating strategy as a creative act, Christensen et al., 1982; managers as craftsmen, Mintzberg, 1975; or strategy creation as craft thought and action, Mintzberg, 1989) Although there are several authors with a different point of view on Craftmen strategy like Rumelt, Schendel, and Teece as they do not consider managers are craftsmen.

Anglian and Anglo-Scandinavian Settlement at Cottam :: Medieval Archaeology Essays

Anglian and Anglo-Scandinavian Settlement at Cottam Excavation of the Anglian and Anglo-Scandinavian settlement at Cottam B (NGR 49754667) continued in July 1995, directed by Dr J.D. Richards for the Department of Archaeology, University of York. Work focused on a possible 10th-century settlement focus, c.200m NE of the 8th/9th-century site investigated in 1993. Two Norse bells, a 10th-century spearhead and a Jellinge-style brooch had been recovered from this area by metal-detector users, and field-walking had yielded Torksey-type ware sherds. Aerial photographs showed very few crop-marks in this area, although a magnetometer survey was conducted in Spring 1995 and revealed several ditched enclosures either side of droveways. The purpose of the 1995 excavation was to: - evaluate the survival of evidence in this area and investigate the reasons for the lack of crop-marks; - test the theory that this site represented a localised settlement shift from the SW; - characterise the nature of settlement in this area. A trench 20 x 100m was cut across the entrance, a central trackway, and parts of at least two enclosures. This revealed a massive ditched entranceway with an internal rampart and substantial wooden gate structure. At this point the ditch was at least 1.5m deep by 2.5m wide with a rampart behind it, although elsewhere the trackways and enclosures were defined by shallow ditches, less than 0.5m in depth. It appears that the main purpose of the entrance was for display rather than defensive purposes. Traces of several post-built structures were discovered within the enclosures, although truncation by ploughing had removed all occupation deposits and continues to make it difficult to define coherent building plans. The lack of crop-marks was demonstrated to be the result of the shallow nature of most of the features, many less than 0.1m deep, making them visible to magnetometry but not affecting crop growth. Several structural features were identified however, including a possible quarry pit and several industrial features which yielded large quantities of fuel ash slag. The finds recovered included two late strap-ends, one conveniently from a post-hole, as well as a number of dress pins, and a finger ring decorated with ring and dot ornament. The pottery, including York-, Torksey- and Maxey-type wares, attests to a range of trading contacts, both N and S of the Humber. This is in stark contrast to the 8th and early 9th century focus, which was apparently aceramic.

Cultural Relevance of Artwork Essay

The very spirit of an artwork remains in the time it was created. There is no better way to appreciate art than to understand its situational context, that is, the space and time of its creation. Works of art are like photographs taken in a particular time and place. In this paper we explore the situational context of three works of art: (1) Produced in the late seventeenth century, Wedding of Mary and Joseph is Peruvian painting; (2) Pierre-Auguste Renoir’s Acrobats At The Cirque Fernando (1879) shows two young Parisian girls; and (3) Figure of a Mother Holding a Child, created in the nineteenth century by an unknown Lulua artist (See Appendix). All three pieces of art tell interesting, unique tales about their makers and the conditions of their times. What’s more, layers upon layers of human thought through different times and places of human history may be unearthed through this process of art appreciation. Our present understanding of historical societies and cultures must also influence the process of interpreting a work of art. After all, one scholar may consider a painting with the eyes of a sociologist in our time, while another may be a trained psychologist. Such designations did not exist before now. Regardless of how an artwork is interpreted and with what lens and in which frame it is looked through; works of art stay alive as we glean historical information through them. As the following section on Wedding of Mary and Joseph shows, it is possible to develop various interpretations about the time and place of an artist even if researched historical information is there to assist us in our interpretation. Wedding of Mary and Joseph Produced by an unknown artist, Wedding of Mary and Joseph is an oil painting on canvas, depicting the couple getting married before the high priest who is clothed in a â€Å"richly flower-patterned hooded mantle (â€Å"Wedding of Mary and Joseph†). † There are clergymen assisting the high priest. Joseph is carrying his staff which has flowers at the top. Moreover, both the bride and bridegroom have golden halos. Ann, the mother of Mary stands right behind the bride. By Ann’s side is a suitor of Mary who has been rejected by God’s command. The suitor is shown breaking his staff, which has not flowered like the staff of Joseph (â€Å"Wedding of Mary and Joseph†). The painting is enriched by â€Å"gold stamping,† which â€Å"unifies the composition (â€Å"Wedding of Mary and Joseph†). † There are Peruvian flowers scattered on the ground where Mary and Joseph stand. This transfers the scene of the Bible from the Holy Land to Peru (â€Å"Wedding of Mary and Joseph†). Furthermore, it describes an important movement in Peruvian art history by the name of Cusco School (Bennett). Indeed, this painting accompanies a very important period in Peruvian history. Spanish colonization had not only managed to transfer the Spanish Inquisition to the Spanish territories around the globe, but also brought European art into Peru (Bennett). The Spanish Inquisition had claimed many lives in Europe. In Peru, the Inquisition had centered on the discovery of people who were Jews by birth, but had claimed to have converted to Christianity. These people were suspected to have gone back from Catholicism to Judaism. Thus, the Peruvian Inquisition was about punishing the Jews or converted Catholics for apostasy (Lea). The Peruvian Inquisition had taken place in the seventeenth century. Seeing that the sociopolitical environment of Peru revolved around religious affairs at the time, it is not surprising that the Christian, Peruvian artists started a new art movement – the Cusco School – to create religious art in particular (Bennett). As a matter of fact, the Wedding of Mary and Joseph is a perfect example of Cusco art. The Cusco School happens to be the largest movement of art in the Peruvian art history. The movement was represented by â€Å"mestizo painters and sculptors who produced countless depictions of religious figures adorned in gold (Bennett). † The Spanish colonizers had used religious art to teach Christianity to the New World. Subsequently, the native artists of Peru had begun to meld European art with their local style and tradition (Bennett). So, while the figures of Mary and Joseph in the Peruvian painting reveal European, Christian influence on the Peruvian artist; the flowers and long tailed birds of Peru scattered on the ground show that the artist continues to love his land despite colonization. The golden halos of the bride and the bridegroom are, of course, the signature of the Cusco School. Hence, the painting, Wedding of Mary and Joseph, reveals itself as an excellent tool to understand the culture of Peru with respect to Spanish colonization. By discovering more about the conditions of the artist’s time, history of the Americas may also be studied in great depth. Moreover, this painting helps viewers to appreciate how artists are influenced by their environments and the times. Acrobats At The Cirque Fernando Produced in another place and time altogether, renowned Parisian painter, Pierre-Auguste Renoir’s Acrobats At The Cirque Fernando (1879) shows two real girls, most probably between twelve and fifteen years of age, taking turns to perform their act at the circus (Mancoff). The facial and bodily expressions of the girls and their onlookers are open to any number of interpretations. One of the young girls is carrying balls around her chest while the other is communicating with the audience as part of her act. The girl who is communicating with the audience has a questioning, innocent expression on her face. The one who is carrying balls is possibly waiting for her turn to perform. She, too, is innocent and fresh in appearance as the other. However, she seems to be dwelling on her new experiences of semi-adulthood. Perhaps she is musing on the boys in her life – the young men who admire her very much. The audience depicted in the painting, behind the bodies of the two young girls, appears to consist of men alone after all. The men appear like judges, in their black coats, giving them the semblance of uniformed officers. Only one of the men has his face visible through the painting, and the face is hard enough for the girls to display their innocence in all its glory with the assumption that the counterpart of a harsh and doubtful attitude must be softness. Although the girl carrying the balls has her back turned toward the hard faced man, she knows that she too would have to perform. The expressions of the male and the females in Renoir’s Acrobats At The Cirque Fernando are rather similar to the expressions of the two sexes depicted in many of the artist’s works of the time. The woman is seen as the adored and innocent object that performs, even though the man is hard faced, perhaps weary of the work that he performs to fend for his family day after day. The woman is the amuser, the muse, and the object of entertainment to fend for. After all, she is beautiful (Norfleet). The only beautiful facet of the man is that he is strong – in Renoir’s paintings, at least. What is more, the man is always staring at the woman in Renoir’s works. He fondles her whenever he has the chance. The woman remains faithful to him – this is depicted through the innocence on her face. If she becomes unfaithful she knows that the hard faced man would discontinue supporting her. The French word for ‘thank you’ is merci, which, if used in English, perfectly describes the attitude of the woman in late nineteenth century Paris. Although Paris was one of the first places in the west where women were generally believed to have been liberated, Renoir’s painting reveals that the women were definitely not liberated through promiscuity or debauchery. Rather, the urban Parisian women in the late nineteenth century seem to have been given permission by their men to be out and about, entertaining them, while remaining faithful to their innocence as well as their marital vows (Norfleet). As the facial expression of the young girl carrying the balls in Renoir’s Acrobats At The Cirque Fernando reveals – women understood their position in Parisian society even as they were aware that men and women are equally dependent on each other. Then again, the painting remains open to numberless sociological interpretations. Figure of a Mother Holding a Child As our analysis of Renoir’s painting shows, it is possible to understand the situational context of a painting in any number of ways. Sociologists and historians may be more interested in discovering the history of society in a block of time. If psychoanalysts were to join in, there would be various intricacies of the human mind revealed through artworks. On that note, Figure of a Mother Holding a Child is a very interesting sculpture because there are multiple ways of understanding its import. On one hand, the sculpture is a perfect depiction of the pain of starvation that the African people have been experiencing for a long time, and that nobody outside of Africa has done anything consequential about – despite the fact that the entire world discusses it. On the other hand, it represents a ritual that the Lulua tribe of the Democratic Republic of Congo had practiced for its own survival (â€Å"Figure of a Mother Holding a Child†). The sculpture is that of a skinny, African female with an infant in her arms. The woman’s head is larger than her body. The bone lines on her neck are particularly telling. Even so, the bone lines on her neck and the wrinkles on her face had actually been created by the artist to show that the Lulua peoples had used scarification to adorn their bodies (â€Å"Lulua Tribe: Democratic Republic of Congo;† â€Å"Figure of a Mother Holding a Child†). Indeed, it is scarification that adorns the woman carrying the infant. Just the same the viewer is made to feel sorry for the woman and her child because they appear extremely poor. Made with wood and copper alloy, the woman in the sculpture has bulging eyes and a â€Å"pointed base (â€Å"Figure of a Mother Holding a Child†). † According to the Brooklyn Museum, the base was most probably â€Å"thrust into a pot containing earth and various bishimba, or materials of mineral, plant, animal, or human origin endowed with protective powers (â€Å"Figure of a Mother Holding a Child†). † In actuality, the sculpture had been created for a Lulua woman who had experienced difficulties in childbirth. The Lulua people believed that it was the evil spirit which interrupted the process of childbirth for women. So that the woman would attract the ancestral spirit of the Lulua tribe and get rid of the evil spirit, the artist gave her the sculpture to care for until delivery. The bulging eyes of the sculpture reveal that the woman is aware of the influence of the evil spirit that is stopping her from becoming a mother (â€Å"Lulua Tribe†). The Lulua peoples had migrated from western Africa to the Democratic Republic of Congo during the eighteenth century. These people lived in â€Å"small regional chiefdoms,† and therefore formed closely knit communities (â€Å"Lulua Tribe†). Because they were immigrants, they were rather concerned about their continuity. Moreover, the Lulua people believed that their sculptures had to be created for religious reasons (â€Å"Lulua Tribe†). The Lulua artists who created sculptures such as the Figure of a Mother Holding a Child must have had faith that they were carrying out their moral duty toward their own people. Indeed, the religious values of the Lulua people were guarded by their art. Sculptures of females were quite popular among them, as these figures exemplified â€Å"the union of physical and moral beautify (â€Å"Figurative Sculpture†). † The Lulua people believed in equating proper behavior with physical beauty (â€Å"Figurative Sculpture†). It can be inferred that the Figure of a Mother Holding a Child and all other sculptures created for the same reason were reminders for the Lulua people that the human body cannot be separated from morality. This principle is clearly exemplified by the bond between mother and child. Conclusion We focused on the political conditions surrounding the artist of Wedding of Mary and Joseph. Societal context of Renoir’s painting, Acrobats At The Cirque Fernando, was explored with a brief overview of gender relations in 19th century Paris. This study may have been conducted with historical information gleaned through novels, too. Finally, the cultural context of Figure of a Mother Holding a Child was explored. Although this discussion was centered on political, societal and cultural contexts of three works of art, it was clarified as part of the discussion that an artwork may be appreciated in any number of ways. There are countless theories and innumerable stories about the history of mankind. What is more, every piece of artwork tells a tale about the space and time of its artist alone. The work lives on as students of art and historians delve into paintings over and again. Any number of assumptions could be made about the situational context of an artwork thus. Perhaps, therefore, it is reasonable to state that a work of art has as many minds as interpreters as the number of people that consider the artwork through the passage of time. Moreover, only assumptions can be made about the situational context of an artwork. History is best left to those that lived it. After all, we only make educated guesses about what people of the past lived through to gather useful information for our lives in the present. Works Cited Bennett, Caroline. â€Å"Art and Architecture. † Viva Travel Guides. 11 Nov 2008. . â€Å"Figurative Sculpture. † Central African Art. 11 Nov 2008. . â€Å"Figure of a Mother Holding a Child. † Brooklyn Museum Collections: African Art. 11 Nov 2008. . Lea, Henry C. â€Å"Inquisition in 17th Century Peru: Cases of Portuguese Judaizers. † Modern History Sourcebook. 11 Nov 2008. . â€Å"Lulua Tribe: Democratic Republic of Congo. † For African Art. 2006. 11 Nov 2008. . Mancoff, Debra N. â€Å"Paintings by Pierre-Auguste Renoir. † How Stuff Works. 2008. 11 Nov 2008. .